In the late 19th century, British scientist Sir Francis Galton took Faulds’ and Herschel’s observations to the next level by applying statistical analysis. Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, was interested in heredity and measurement of human characteristics. In the 1880s he turned his attention to fingerprints, seeking to determine if they truly were unique and how they might be systematically classified. Galton collected thousands of prints and analyzed the patterns and minute details. In 1892 he published the landmark book Finger Prints, the first scientific treatise on fingerprint identification. Galton’s studies confirmed beyond doubt that the probability of two individuals (even twins) having the same fingerprints was extraordinarily low, effectively establishing the uniqueness and permanence of friction ridge skin. He also refuted any link between fingerprint patterns and a person’s character or genetics – fingerprints were purely identification markers. Importantly, Galton formalized a classification system to sort fingerprint patterns into categories. He defined the core pattern types (arches, loops, and whorls) and recorded ridge characteristics. Galton was the first to identify and name the small distinguishing features in fingerprints (ridge bifurcations, endings, islands, etc.), now known as “Galton’s details” or minutiae, which form the basis of matching one print to another. His work provided a statistical framework and a practical filing system for fingerprint cards. By proving scientifically that fingerprints were unique and classifiable, Galton’s research gave authoritative weight to fingerprint identification. His book and subsequent advocacy (including testimony to committees) directly influenced police adoption of the technique in Britain and beyond. In essence, Galton established fingerprinting as a legitimate scientific method of identification, laying the groundwork for its routine use in law enforcement.
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